Redes Sociais
Hilda C. P. Morana *
Lilian Pasqualini Casado * *
Zacaria Borge Ali Ramadam, ***
ABSTRACT
This paper reports on results of Rorschach Test from a sample of incarcerated individuals who had been found guilty of rape comparing them with results obtained from a sample of prisoners who had been diagnosed as psychopaths. Results show that while rapists have psychopathic tendencies in their personality, they are more socially differentiated than psychopaths. Rapists also had more personal resources approaching a diagnosis of Partial Personality Disorder. However, when involved in an affectionate relationship, rapists are as disorganized as psychopaths. In these circumstances, both groups tend to act in a primitive and impulsive way without conscience or remorse.
KEY WORDS
Psychopath, Rapists, Personality Disorder.
Introduction:
The offence of rape, although very frequent, is still not well understood and there are only a handful of studies that have aimed at understanding the personality of these offenders. Rape tends to be underreported hence the number of victims is considered much higher than the official statistics and the physical, psychological, and social consequences among the victims are very serious. Rape is both a deviation of sexual behavior and a serious criminal offence invoking severe penal retribution. Rapists may differ in their personality characteristics and their motivations for their crime.
Davis & Latenberg (1987) demonstrated that rapists commit a large number of victimizations but that, as a group, they have not been singled out for in-depth personality studies other than the regular criminological reviews. This lack of studies on such an important group of offenders may be due to the fact that rapists rarely request treatment, and when arrested, institutional evaluations are directed more at the behavior than at their psycho-dynamic characteristics. On the other hand, psychological studies of rapists are also difficult because case identification hails from police records, which may not be entirely accurate regarding offence definition. In
Brazil
, personality studies of sexual aggressors are rare and more so studies that have used projective techniques such as the Rorschach. Rapists and sexual aggressors in general represent about 10% of all other aggressors (Herman, 1990)._______________________________________________________
* Forensic Psychiatrist, São Paulo University , Clinical Hospital - Psychiatric Institute, São Paulo-SP Brazil .
* * Forensic Psychologist, São Paulo Rorschach Society. São Paulo-SP Brazil
*** Professor and Head, Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine,São Paulo University . São Paulo-SP Brazil
We thank Dr Ruy Benedicto M. Filho for his assistance in supervising this article. Most of the persons with Psychopathic Personality Disorder were cases sent to IMESC (Criminology and Social Medical Institute of São Paulo) for assessment. Persons found guilty of rape were serving their sentences and were examined at the Penitentiary of São Paulo. We thank the Directors of both Institutions. We also thank Dra Lucia Coelho for the assistance in supervising the Rorschach Protocols produced by the rapists. Statistical analysis and data management were supervised by Dr. Reinaldo Jose Gianini, MD, PhD, specialist in Preventive Medicine.
Address correspondence and reprint request to Hilda C.P.Morana
E-mail: hildacpm@uol.com.br
Rape arouses social indignation and a sense of revolt even amongst the incarcerated population. In prison, rapists have to be given special protection and segregation because if left within the prison population they are usually beaten, tortured, sexually molested or killed. They are rejected by the other inmates who allege that they have relatives that have been victims of sexual assaults. Other inmates express fears that their own partners or daughters could become victims.
The literature seems unanimous in pointing out that there does not exist only one type of rapist, and that the most common type is the one that seemingly leads a normal live. Rapists are not considered necessarily "abnormal", or psychopathologically compromised (Pimentel, 1998). This author concludes that the majority of rapists showed nothing in particular other than an inclination to violence. Groth, Burgess and Holmstrom (1977) after analyzing reports of rapists in jail and their victims described three elements in the offence: force, anger and sex, but force and anger were the most predominant. For many researchers rape is a pseudo-sexual act, or sexual behavior that mediates non-sexual needs. Rape, however, is considered a sexual deviation, but its close ties to aggression make it an act of violence and humiliation performed by sexual means. Rape is not attached to gratification of sexual necessity or an answer to exaggerated sexual excitation. The outstanding aspect of the act is, therefore, not sexual pleasure but violence
Charam (1997) considers rape a serious abnormal sexual deviation and classifies it as a personality disturbance, sociopathic type. In this view, rapists are pleasure seekers and look for a discharge of their instinctive demands when they occur, without the control or influence of moral values, represented by superego structures. They would be carefree individuals out of synch with the demands of society and, therefore, a serious problem for society and for themselves.
Caprio (1993) points out that rape can occur when normal social barriers are inoperable such as war situations where soldiers without criminal and psychiatric past, rape as a form of demoralizing the enemy, and to alleviate tension and fears. Apart from rape committed by persons suffering from psychotic disorders and which may be related to complex delusional motivations, impulsive and inadequate individuals as well as sadists use rape to alleviate emotional tension.
Herman (1990) mentions that the majority of criminals do not suffer from psychiatric conditions like psychotic disorders or mental retardation. However, they fulfill the diagnostic criteria for personality disorder. Narcissistic, paranoid, schizoid and sociopathic personality disorders are frequently described among offenders. Most offenders describe difficulties in interpersonal relationships and social behavior, lack of empathy, need for control and need to dominate others, and over preoccupation with their own desires, necessities and fantasies. It is still not clear if these characteristics are more common among sexual aggressors than among other criminals.
In a previous study (Pasqualini Casado and Morana, 2000) found out that the majority of rapists in their sample did not fulfill the necessary criteria for psychopathic diagnosis (Hare, 1991) or a Global Personality Disorder, but rather a Partial Personality Disorder, as defined later on.
This paper reports on a study in which the authors compared two samples, psychopaths and rapists, with the aim of verifying common variables to both groups as well as differences.
Judicial Definition of Rape:
In Brazil sexual liberty is defined in law as the free will to use one's own body for sexual purposes. As a crime against such sexual freedom, rape is defined in Article 213 of the Brazilian Penal Code (1940), as: "to force a woman to carnal intercourse through violence or serious threat. In 1990, the law of Heinous Crimes (Law 8072) increased the basic penalty for rape from 6 to 10 years of imprisonment.
In Brazilian law, rape, refers to vaginal penetration by force and without the victim's consent or against her will. In this offence, the active participant is a man and the passive is a woman. The crime is completed when there is partial or total introduction of the penis, independent of whether ejaculation has taken place. In addition to rape, Brazilian law also considers another offence against sexual freedom - violent indecent assault. This offence is in the Brazilian Penal Code, article 214, as forcing somebody (male or female), by the use of violence or serious threat, to practice or permit libidinous acts different from carnal intercourse, not intending vaginal copulation.
Considerations on Psychopathy and Antisocial Personality Disorder
Although the denomination "Antisocial Personality Disorder" is often related to the classic term of Psychopathy (Freeman, 1993; Perry, 1992; Prins, 1993), other specific personality disorders are not less morbid, could present an element of dangerousness and are no less difficult to treat. The majority of psychopaths fulfill the criteria of Antisocial Personality Disorder, but not all antisocial individuals are necessarily psychopathic.
As a term, psychopathy" has had different meanings throughout history. It was synonymous with mental disease up until the beginning of the 20th century. Later, it was used to mean mental disorders different from neurosis or psychosis, due to the fact that they did not show the symptoms that characterize these disorders (emotional conflicts in neurosis; deliriums, hallucinations and serious perturbed behavior in psychosis). More recently "psychopathy" has come to be associated with the concept of personality as in psychopathic personality" to describe behavioral anomalies frequently associated with quarrels and suffering in interpersonal relationship. In psychiatry some authors have tried to restrict the meaning of the term psychopathy to a small fraction of persons with a specific personality disorder different than antisocial personality.
This specific concept of "psychopathy" as defined by Hare (1991) and others, does not correspond entirely to the concept of antisocial personality disorder; the latter being more criminally inclined, but less dangerous. Persons who present serious emotional insensibility and disrespect for the feelings and rights of others, and who show intense hostility and poor control over their impulses are, in accordance with Hare (1991), best described as psychopathic. They are egocentric and manipulative; they can dissimulate their intentions with superficial charm, and they are inclined to violent behaviour if thwarted in their designs. They usually make victims out of those who try to help them or with whom they are associated. Ordinarily, they are refractory to the therapeutics procedures. They do not learn from experience and do not feel guilt or remorse. The damage that psychopaths cause to society makes it imperative to learn more about their personality structures and categories that could help in detection and better social interventions.
Nature versus Nurture
There is much controversy about the
origins of personality with opinions that range from the biological or nature
to the social or nurture. Yet, while
constitutional and hereditary predispositions are considered of major
importance, socialization, negative upbringing and early emotional conflicts
all have a role in patterning the final personality product. The first perspective would view personality
as unchangeable and hence it would adopt a position of therapeutic
nihilism. The second perspective,
however, would leave the door open to certain optimism about potential success
of therapeutic interventions. How to differentiate good risk cases from those
who no amount of therapy will help, remains a major challenge for
clinicians. .
Personality disorders as such are excluded from the diagnosis if it is proven that the underling causes for the behavioural abnormalities are cerebral injuries or brain dysfunctions of several kinds. Although a diagnosis of Organic Personality Disorder could be entertained it is obvious that the problem is mostly organic and that the brain was affected either during development or due to injuries or encephalitis, for example, in adulthood.
On the other hand, humans are socialized to restrict the fulfillment of selfish impulses unless they are in agreement with social dictates. It would be exactly this dynamic of integration, or harmony between social and personal demands, that is found perturbed in the development of persons with specific personality disorders to the point that apart from quality, there could also be a difference in quantity between normal persons and those affected by a personality disorder (Gattaz, 1998). In a strict sense, this harmony is achieved by the confluence of factors linked to the maturity of cerebral substratum and existential circumstances during the development. Failures in integration with the social system are seeing, therefore, as basic to an understanding of psychopathic personalities.
Is there Treatment for Psychopathic Disorder ?
Many authors refer to the pedagogical, penal and even therapeutic intractable aspects of specific personality disorder. ( López-Ibor, 1997; Marietán, 1998; Millon, 1996 ). In the history of psychiatry it is reported that moral, punitive, psychological, medical and even surgical treatment, have arguable results and, in general, are not satisfactory.
Poor therapeutic results do not depend entirely on the diagnosis alone, but rather result from the evaluation of all personality factors and global individual functioning. The identification of psychopathological aspects related to impulsiveness, pattern of humor (?), emotional lability, low frustration tolerance is important for the treatment and rehabilitation, might accessible to drug treatment or psychotherapy as well as to psychosocial rehabilitation.
Sensibility to others and the adequate development of social sentiments, as the capacity to show consideration for others and to have an ethic conscience, is a decisive factor in treatment as well as in psychosocial rehabilitation.
Medical-Legal Aspects
In Brazil, the Medical-Legal diagnosis of Psychopathy implies diminished responsibility, because in regard to criminal responsibility, the Brazilian Penal Code considers both cognitive, and volitional components. It is assumed that the psychopath has the understanding capacity preserved, but that his auto-determination is perturbed.
In fact, the problems of persons with specific personality disorder, and particularly those who present psychopathic behavior, are directly connected with capacity for self-determination. ( afective-volitive determinants).
As human understanding is a complex process that depends on affective and volitional elements, these persons also show cognitive distortions of perception and in the evaluation of facts. Notwithstanding, this aspect of cognitive prejudice is different from psychotic symptoms or mental deficits, specially because the individual is capable of understanding the criminal character and prejudicial impacts of his acts. Very often, psychopaths justify their conduct in an inconsistent ands irrational way. It is necessary to note that the type of impairment of the understanding of these persons is not the same as that found among psychotic patients.
In Forensic Psychiatry, many authors propose that psychopaths should be deemed fully responsible. We agree with this theory in principle because there is no sense in keeping in the same institution people who commit crimes of less serious gravity submitted to the cruelty and the manipulation of psychopaths.
Global Personality Disorder and Partial Personality Disorder
In a previous study (Morana, 1999) verified the necessity to establish distinctions of practical order in the diagnostic of Antisocial Personality Disorder. One of the reasons for this is the type of crime. The author noted in this study that the type of crime, even the most savage, does not characterize the personality of the subject, being that this could only be evaluated after an appropriate personality investigation. This particular study gathered 22 cases diagnosed as Antisocial Personality Disorder, who had been referred to the Institute of Social Medicine
and Criminology of São Paulo State (IMESC). Significant differences were noted with respect to criminal potentiality. This fact, together with others that were found in the forensic files, led to the opinion that there was not only a distinct criminal potentiality, but also that important differences concerning the type of personality could not be apprehended through the diagnostic criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder.By analyzing these items and correlating them with the psychological dynamics demonstrated in the Rorschach Inkblot Test and inferred from the life records, we found in our sample four subtypes of personality disorders. We have not considered them to be only the result of individual peculiarities, but personality variants, which along with Silveira (1985), we have classified as instability ( disturbance in the capacity for maintaining purpose and intentions ), perversity of character ( affective unconcern for others ), explosiveness (intense impulsive lack of control, discharge of violence) and asthenia (deficient vital spontaneity). Silveira included these characteristics in his categorization of psychopathic personalities and some partial personality disorders.
Besides describing subtypes, Morana (1999) could verify different extensions of personality impairment of the population studied and denominated Antisocial Personality Disorder. In some cases the personality seemed to be impaired in all aspects, in others, the personal impairments were more restricted to certain areas of personality performance. Furthermore, when impairments were manifested in some aspects of the personality these were related to affective-emotional integration, variable degree of disturbance of impulse control and impairment of performance standards related to cognitive processes. In the first case the differences found were denominated of Global Personality Disorder, and the second case, Partial Personality Disorder. It can be presumed that the global personality disorder, as it is defined in this research, corresponds to the concept of psychopathy as is developed through the Hare PCL-R scale (Hare,1991).
Partial personality disorder corresponds to a morbid and abnormal tendency, whose repercussion over the psychological dynamics and behavior is less extensive and, in general, less serious. The characteristics corresponding to the subjects with partial disorders appears in especial circumstances when the situations lived by the subject reach a specific meaning that unleash particular reactions expressing latent psychodynamic elements. This disposition can interfere more or less intensively with the subjective dynamics and affects interpersonal relationships.
In summary, what differentiates the global personality disorder from the partial one is the extension of the impairment of the personality determinants and not the intensity of the impairment.
In this way, the distinction between the denominated global personality disorder, as it was conceived by Silveira (1962) and partial personality disorder, seems fundamental, as both can be related to antisocial conducts, but present differences as to psychic dynamic and the repercussions over the total behavior.
In the case of global personality disorder, the abnormal dynamics seem extensive, involving in a very ample manner the psychic life that this condition projects in Forensic Psychiatry, specially due to the fact that it is refractory to the present therapeutic and rehabilitation resources.
In fact, in the previous referred study, Morana (1999) verified that partial personality disorder does not manifest with so much frequency out-of-control impulses and these did not take part of the habitual style of the subject, appearing rather in specific circumstances, as a specific conduct. To the contrary, some other traits and tendencies were more pronounced in partial personality disorder when compared with global personality disorder.
It is important to highlight that descriptive criteria are not sufficient to allow a diagnose of different types of personality disorder. In fact, forensic psychiatrists tend to confound the affective state of persons with schizotypal personality that have a deficient affective expression with the callous and shallow affect of the psychopaths.
Rorschach Inkblot Test
We chose Rorschach test because it is a global psychological test that permits the study of the whole personality and of psycho-dynamic considerations. Also the Rorschach has been found reliable and valid in the study of criminal populations (Gacono & Meloy, 1992). As to the methodology, we followed Silveiras criteria (1985) modified by Coelho (1998-2000). Silveira is considered the most important authority in the application and development of Rorschach's Psychodiagnostic in Brazil.
Characterization of Brazilian Population ( reference group )
Coelho studied 100 individuals over a ten-year period following the "psychic harmony" theoretical criterion established by Silveira. These subjects may not correspond to the average Brazilian population because they were specially chosen for the study in order to demonstrate specific behaviors as observed by Silveira and Coelho during the years the Rorschach Test was applied. These persons have presented psychic integration with the environment without any serious behavior or personality deviation, neither in dynamic nor in structural order.
Exner (1994) adopted a more empirical approach and emphasized quantitative evaluation; he considered the Rorschach Test as a peculiar and special modality of psychological test and he set out to seek population norms for its application. He included in his study population persons without a known psychiatric history who presented themselves as volunteers to the test applied by competent examiners. In this way he gathered a sample of 700 non-patient adults, stratified by geographical distribution and partially by socioeconomic level. The average age of this group is 32,34 years, ranging from 19 to 70 years, with 50% of each sex ( Exner- 1994 ).
In spite of the rigorous selection criteria, as far as geographical distribution and socio-economic status, the Exner population did not show any significant difference concerning variables normally included in the evaluation of Rorschach results. Despite the large diversification, supported by inductive confrontation of answers and behavior, the statistical results are at best non-parametric.
The Silveira approach based on a theoretical model of human psychic experiences allows for the exploration of mental processes at the psychological and cerebral levels and offers a referential picture subject to empirical verification and refutation.
Although the Silveira (1962) and Coelho (1980) model cannot be fully explained in this paper, sufficed it to say that, theoretically, data from the Rorschach are used as representation of the dynamic and evolutive interaction of Perception, Memory, Emotion and Representation processes through images. The Rorschach classification corresponds to the codification of psychic processes involved in the production of each test factor. The psychogram thus developed expresses the interdependency of those factors showing the dynamic of mental processes peculiar to each examinee. Besides this, the rigorous criteria of response codification, supported by the hypothetical - deductive exam of the superior psychic processes, allows the confrontation of each individual protocol with the result obtained by the examinees reference group, either in normal condition or with psychopathological disturbances.
Unlike some authors, Silveira conjointly considers plates II and III with the other colored ones ( VIII, IX and X ) for the affectivity index ( Af ), and compares these five plates with the other plates. This way, he emphasizes the strong affective appeal that these figures denote and develops an Impulsiveness index (Imp) used to verify the pressure of primary needs on the psychic apparatus.
It is also important to consider that, Silveira systemizes a dynamic of personality confronting the percepts in two experimental situations as found in the group of achromatic plates and in the group of colored plates making it possible to check specific personality conditions.
In this manner, the set of monochromatic plates( I, IV,V,VI, and VII ) is related to situations in which the subjects react to requiring reflection before action and which are more impersonal. In these situations the affective tone is altered by cognitive understanding, but does not perform an important role. The colored plates ( II, III, VIII, IX and X) reflect the way the examinee reacts in occasions of more affective intensity or with a direct affective appeal.
Method
Procedure for Rapists Sample
The studied group was composed by 12 subjects. Of these, 10 were serving sentence in a State Penitentiary of São Paulo (1997-1998 ) and 2 were examined at the
Institute of Social Medicine and Criminology of the São Paulo State - IMESC (1996).
Before administering the Rorschach, each subject had a preliminary extensive semi-structured interview to obtain a complete life history and developmental facts. More information was searched for in the institutional files and judicial reports. Interviews with relatives were not possible because of difficulties finding their homes or refusal by the inmates to allow their relatives to come to the penal institution. These subjects could be considered common criminals serving sentences. This sample included individuals who had committed only sexual crimes and individuals with a history of sexual crimes plus some other type of criminality. The selection criteria specified that the sexual crime was rape. Comparisons were made between the two sub-groups (sexual crime only and sexual crime plus other types of crimes). Comparisons between the specific psycho-dynamics is planned when we felt that the deviant behavior (rape) was part of some other criminal occurrence. Subjects with low cognitive abilities and subjects with personality disorders were not excluded, but those with mental disorders in Axes I, DSM IV were excluded.
Victims were all of female above 14 years-old. Most of them did not know their assailants and were accosted and intimidated with some type of weapon or instrument. The crimes occurred mostly in isolated places.
All Rorschach test in the rapists sample were administered by the second author of this article, a psychologist and expert in Rorschach Test by São Paulo Rorschach Society with 4 years of experience in the application of Rorschach tests in forensic populations.
Procedure for sample of Psychopaths
A sample of 19 psychopathic individuals was gathered from a purposeful sample of IMESC archives on whom some clinical and criminological data were available. The only criteria for inclusion in the sample was positive evidence from clinical and Rorschach data of typical psychopathic features. Individuals with organic or traumatic pathologies, mentally retardation, or neurological and psychotic impairments were excluded.
The psychiatric assessment of these individuals included semi-structured clinical interviews and analyses of records. Other psychological tests relevant to the clinical and legal needs of each personal case were also administered, as well as neurological and electroencephalographic evaluations. Findings from clinical data was compared to the results of the Rorschach test.
The Rorschach test on this sample was applied by different examiners with at least 5 years experience in the use of Rorschach test on a forensic population. These examinations including the Application of the Rorschach were requested by the psychiatrist in charge of determining levels of the Brazilian Criminal Responsibility Test as required by a judge.
These examinations took place some time after the offenses had been committed so personality reactions to the recent circumstances of the crime had already subsided. In addition, the Silvera criteria evidences structural personality tendencies that allow to distinguish from circumstantial experiential changes in the subject.
Characteristics of the Rapists sample
The rapists group was mad up of 12 male adults between the ages of 19 years and 43 years, at time of offence (mean of 26.16 ). Almost all subjects (11= 91.7%) had failed to complete elementary school, 66.4% (n=8) worked in odd jobs or temporary services (not specialized labor). Although 58.1% (n=7) were married or living together, they reported multiple occasional other partners and only 33.2% (n=4) reported steady long-term relationships with one the partner. A history of exposure and display of aggressive behavior during development was elicited in 66.4% (n=8) of the cases. In regard to psychoactive substances, 74.7% (n=9) were exclusively alcohol users, 24.9 (n=3) cocaine users and 16.6% (n=2) cannabis users. The most significant clinical occurrence was epilepsy found among 16.6% (n=2) of the sample and the most frequent crimes were assult causing bodily harm in 24.9% (n=3) and robbery in 16.6% (n=2). There were no homicides or attempt murder cases in the sample.
Characteristic of Psychopaths sample.
The psychopath group was made up of 19 male adults between ages of 15 years and 51 years at time of offence (mean 23,58). About half, 52.6% (n=10 ) had not completed elementary school level, 15,9% (n=3) were laborers and 26,5% (n=5) had more specialized jobs. Six subjects (31.8%) were married or living together in a steady relationship with the partner), but 16 (84.4%) reported promiscuity and 18 (95.4%) reported aggressive behavior during adolescence. In regard to use of psychoactive substances, 42.4% (n=8) were exclusively alcohol users, 31.8% (n=6) cocaine users and 58.3% (n=11) cannabis users. Multiple use of several drugs occurred in 31.8% (n=6). The most significant clinical finding in this group was also epilepsy in 31.8% (n=6) of the sample. In this group 5.3% (n=1) had committed robbery; 37.1 % (n=7) murder or attempted murder, 21.2% ( n=4) murder and robbery, 10.6% (n=2) had been found guilty of murdering under-age victims. Former delinquency was more frequent in this group as well, 58.3 % (n=11) robbery, 15.9% (n=3) injury causing bodily harm, murder and/or attempt murder, and 37.1 % (n = 7) other type of crimes (drug dealing, forgery, corruption, etc.)
Procedures
Initially two groups of sexual aggressors were compared ( n=12 and n=14 ) and this was followed by a further comparison between 14 sexual aggressors with 19 psychopaths. After the revision of theses cases and comparison between clinical data and Rorschach indexes we verified that two subjects of the rapists sample showed clinical conditions and psychological features compatible with psychopathic personality. These two subjects were excluded so the final sexual aggressors sample had 12 subjects
The comparison between the two sexual aggressor groups through the Rorschach test variables showed significant differences in the chromatic stimulation, more specifically, among factors relating to EC (Perception of Space) and RMI C (Adaptation to Reality). In the group of 14 individuals that included the 2 individuals with psychopathic tendencies, the result of these two variables showed that these sexual aggressors were closer to the psychopathic group. In this manner, we interpreted that the EC and RMI C factors would be indicators for psychopathic tendencies, since they altered the results of the initial sample of rapists.
Means, variances, and standard deviations were calculated. Student t tests were applied to determine differences between two means; significance level was set a at alpha (") < 0.05, one right-handed tail. STATA 6.0 program was used for these calculations whereas for tests of differences between two variances were carried out in the EPI- INFO 6.04b program.
Results
The analysis of the Rorschach Test of these two groups, (12 Rapists and 19 Psychopaths) through the test of differences between two sample means, presented just a significant statically deviation only for the index GM (Generic perception of facts through Rorschach monochromatic stimulation).
In relation to the test of differences between two sample variances, variables that presented significant statistical differences were considered. These were also analyzed and similarities were interpreted. These data are provided in Table 1 (Associative Capacity and Intellectual Observation), Table 2 (Adaptation to an Objective Reality and Capacity for Constructive Action), Table 3 (Personality Profile ) and Table 4 (Type of Interest). These terms are explained in Appendix A.
Discussion :
The deviation of GM (Generic perception of facts through Rorschach monochromatic stimulation) refers to the elevation of the medium index for the rapists' sample, when compared with the psychopathic sample. This occurrence links the little disposition to analyze the data of the environment through other not general considerations. Rapists tend to include all the available data in the environment in only one concept.
As the general associative capacity (RT), the index decreased in both samples, being taken as reference the medium values for the normal population. This deviation type was predominant in the psychopaths' sample and exclusive in the rapists' sample. This means that rapists are less involved with what happens in the environment, independent of the type of presented stimulation or experienced circumstances. Psychopaths presented normal pace (T/RT) while rapists are slower than psychopaths to associate ideas.
Analysis of Rorschach variables by monochromatic stimulation:
The Perception index (PERC) refers to the type of apprehension of the external world or the perceptual style to catch reality. The main modalities (G,P and p) check the intellectual contact with the world from environmental stimulus. Already the modalities denominated secondary (E, GE, GP and PG) are less frequent and, in this sense, assist variations of more subjective order.
In formal impersonal situations it was established that secondary factors among the psychopaths were more frequent than among rapists; psychopaths tend to oppose what is presented to them (EM): They select what they want and look for specific aspects in the environment, being more skilled in integrating the obstacles that interfere in the accomplishment of their intentions (GEM).
As for the type of deviations related to the main modalities, these deviations showed the same tendency in both groups: elevation of the Factor G and retraction of the factors P and p. Thus, members in both groups apprehend reality through superficial, immediate and precipitate generalizations. They have difficulty in discriminating what is obvious and evident, what is indicative of little personal reflection and impulsiveness in situations that request initiative and decision. They also showed smaller consideration for the less evident material. Therefore, both groups evidenced significant alterations in the level of observation of different reality segments.
In summary, the deficit in abstraction capacity impacts negatively on a thorough reflection of significant events and experiences as moral realization on the impact of our actions depends on our cognitive ability to abstract information from our conduct. This moral element was affected among members of both samples.
The index RMI M results from psychic determinants that participate in the adaptation process to reality (F +, A and V). This index did not show a significant difference in the variance. However, among rapists there was a predominance of mid-level values for normal population (RMI on the average 50%). Among psychopaths, the values RMI M were located above these medium references (RMI elevated to 47.7%). These tendencies favor an apparent adaptation to reality among rapists or excessive subordination. more specific in the case of psychopaths, to reality demands. However, the two specific occurrences to each one of the samples suggest dissembling behavior with intention to be seemingly driven through socially expected patterns.
The deviation found for factor F + of the RMI M index was below average and this was the predominant tendencies in both groups. This is related to the prevalence of value judgment in the consideration of reality. In order to improve analysis of factor F+ participation of personality resources that could interfere in the objective judgments of facts (Lambda index) was computed. Lambda index was average among psychopaths. But the elevation of this factor among rapists made it appropriate to look for the resource type that participates in the way in which facts are judged. It was found that rapists tend to impose domination on others (PS>M). This may mean that their aggressive behaviors are not directly related to their sexual purpose. It was also verified that, subjectively, events tend to be linked to primitive emotional development of anxiety and tension and, thus, may serve as regulators of conduct to prevent, albeit in an indifferent way, unwelcome emotional aftereffects.
Factor %A relates to aspects of being more spontaneous and emotionally connected, but it is less differentiated from reality. This type of interest would be more egocentric and less socially differentiated; it would motivate the person to immediate satisfaction of needs and desires. This factor was high in both groups denoting immaturity in relating emotions to reality. However, qualitative analysis of factor %V could explain the different deviations in each group. In this respect, it is important to interpret the character dispositions, once they become indicative of the logical use of the values and collective patterns. In impersonal situations rapists tend to presented closer values to the normal reference population (58.1% mid-way values). However, this deviation was significant in 74.2% of psychopaths, suggesting a smaller capacity to integrate rationally the patterns of conduct.
Retraction of conative index (CON M) prevailed among rapists suggesting less vital spontaneity. To the contrary and predominantly, this index was elevated among psychopaths, indicative of a larger predisposition to act out in the environment. The two groups differ substantially in this variable.
Analysis of Rorschach variables by chromatic situations
The number of answers to the chromatic stimulus (RC) is reduced in both groups. This could be indicative of decrease of interest in the environment in situations requiring direct affectionate mobilization.
The Perception Index (PERC C) presented normal mid-level values. The pC factor that refers to details in perceptions was higher among psychopaths although perceptive deviations like PG and GP were not observed. I appeared that both groups normalized perceptive indexes in situations of affective mobilization. They apprehend the reality in an appropriate way and inside of the expected for the normal population. This is a significant occurrence once the indexes were lowered in relation to the expected average for normal population in impersonal situations. In the situations of affective mobilization in which usually people lose the capacity to notice in an appropriate way the events of the environment, these subjects can adapt to the perceptual integration. This could suggest aspects of affective insensibility in both groups, because, affective mobilization does not seem to resonate in such a way as to destabilize observations.
In affectionate circumstances, psychopaths showed a larger attention to negative aspects of the environment with larger intolerance to obstacles and little disposition to solve the difficulties (GE C). For their part, rapists showed a larger disposition to solve situations that interfere in the accomplishment of their intentions in situations of personal interest.
In regard to adaptation to reality in personal situations, both groups presented the same tendency to deviation and the same psychic dynamics of in impersonal situations, for the RMI C index and factors F+ C and A C except for the %V C factor. In these circumstances this factor was lowered for both groups indicating an incapacity of live within social rules.
For the indexes CON C and LAMBDA C the psychic tendencies were the same ones found in impersonal situations.
Personality Profile
Among rapists, the intrinsic cognitive determinant (M, m and m') was lowered compared to the average among the normal population. This fact, in association with the lowered index CON, points to a confirmation of the theoretical hypothesis that the personality of rapists has asthenic tendencies. This group is characterized by low vital spontaneity to act in an autonomous and creative way in the environment.
Among psychopaths the less differentiated cognitive determinants (m and m') was higher than the average for the normal population, which points to a larger tendency in this group to present more primitive needs in their personality, but as among rapists, they showed a lowered capacity to take appropriate leadership and initiative.
As for the extrinsic cognitive determinant regarding perspective series both groups were lowered than the expected average. However, rapists presented a discreet, not significant, increase of the ps determinant.
In the Shading series, a statistically meaningful difference was noted in the two groups. Rapists showed caution to touching in relationships with a certain degree of anxiety in situations where a certain degree of emotional repercussion could be expected. Among psychopaths these tendencies were opposite to the ones among rapists as they showed a high tendency to anticipate circumstances through touch and caution thus showing more savvy in relationships than rapists and evidencing absence of emotional sensibility without signs of emotional repercussion.
For the series of Affectionate Reactions (FC, CF and C) both groups presented the same tendency, but with a statistically significant difference in factor C. Both groups showed a tendency to react to affectionate stimulus in an absolutely egocentric way with explosive and short-circuit reactions. Rage explosions (C and n C') were much more pronounced and statistically significant among psychopaths.
In regard to content variables psychopaths showed a predominance of content pA (animal part); this was statistically significant. This points towards a larger difficulty in integration of perceptions, even the most common ones. This fact along with the others indicate that the personality of psychopaths is much more unstructured than that of rapists.
Capacity to consider others is deteriorated among psychopaths (pH> H) while, to some extend, it is preserved among rapists. Finally, rapists showed a larger concern with their own condition.( Anatomy responses) that psychopaths.
Conclusions
Most rapists were in stable marital relationships, but having strife and disagreements. Only 23% of the sample were single thus indicating that sexual deprivation was not related to their offence.
Among psychopaths, 63% of the sample were single or were not in a stable marital relationships indicating more difficulty than rapists in associating and forming intimate linkages with another person.
Psychopaths had a higher educational level and worked in more specialized jobs then rapists.
Psychopaths appeared to have less personality resources than rapists, were less flexible to adaptation to reality. They are more rigid and able to exercise a larger conscious control on their actions. Similarly, they appear to be more intolerant, mainly in situations of affective mobilization. They have a larger tendency to react to environmental cues, which may be why they "more dangerous. They have a larger capacity to react effectively to environmental situations, however in inadequate or even harmful ways to society. They also showed a larger predisposition to short-circuit reactions. They have less personality resources than rapists, are less socialized and have more primary personality needs. Finally, psychopaths had a statistically significant different reaction to indexes pH> H and pA >A, evidencing a larger disorganization of the personality in regard to capacity to consider the needs of the other person, in essence a larger difficulty to feel empathy.
Rapists in this study sample showed asthenic tendencies in their personality, that is, levels of inhibition collide with their egocentric aspirations. They are unable to take productive action in environmental circumstances, and their actions tend to be impulsive and rather uncontrolled outbursts. For example, index Con was lowered among rapists both in monochromatic and chromatic situations independent of experiential circumstances, suggesting deep rooted characterological tendencies. Rapists had less education and worked in lesser non-specialized jobs, further reinforcing the findings about asthenic tendencies in their personality. On the other hand, rapists had more personality resources and were more socialized than psychopaths. Rapists also had a better capacity for emotional repercussion (ps and l) and showed more concern for their personal well-being (An )
It would be surprising and unintuitive to find that rapists do not present more pronounced psychopathic dynamics, but rapist subjects found to have psychopathic tendencies in clinical examinations that correlated with indexes of the Rorschach Test. were removed from the sample. Similarly, in the psychopaths sample, those who had committed only rape were removed from the sample. Psychopaths commit any type of crime including rape, but this work tried to demonstrate clean personality types in each group.
Rapists in our sample might have had psychopathic tendencies, but they were, socially, more differentiated than psychopaths. They had more emotional resources to socialize and in that way they could be described as having Partial Personality Disorders which will be the subject of another publication by the authors. However, in circumstances of affectionate involvement rapists are as disorganized as psychopaths, acting in a primitive and impulsive way, without displaying much ethical conscience for their actions.
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Appendix A
Psychological Meaning of Rorschach Test
|
R. |
Response total èAssociative capacity |
|
T/R |
Time employed to supply the answers è Mental Pace. |
|
Z/R |
Elaboration |
|
G |
GLOBAL RESPONSE. Generic perception of facts. |
|
GE |
WHITE SPACE-WHOLE RESPONSE. Disposition to face the difficulties. |
|
P |
DETAIL RESPONSEèperceiving of the most evident and concreteness aspects of facts. |
|
E |
SPACE RESPONSE èconcern with the obstacles that interfere with autonomy. |
|
%F+ |
% GOOD FORM RESPONSESè reality judgment |
|
%A |
% ANIMAL RESPONSESè emotional contact with reality |
|
%V |
% POPULAR RESPONSESè assimilation of social rules |
|
l |
LAMBDA è use of personality resources |
|
Rmi |
SILVEIRAS INTELLECTUAL RAPPORT WITH THE OUTER WORLDèadaptation to limitations and injunctions of outer reality |
|
CON |
CONATIVE INDEX FOR MEASURING THE EXPLICIT ACTION è Capacity to act in a coordinate and productive manner. |
|
IMP |
SILVEIRAS IMPULSIVENESS INDEX. Instinctive, slightly elaborated and less socialized impulses. | |
|
Af |
SILVEIRAS AFFECTIVE INDEX. Affective sensitiveness in interpersonal relationship
| |
M |
HUMAN MOVEMENT èAutonomy, intentionality, capacity to integrate subjective experience. | |
M |
ANIMAL MOVEMENT è Immature reactions, more linked to fantasy | |
M' |
MOVEMENTS OF OPPOSITION, CONTENTION OR INANIMATE BEINGSèPresence of emotional conflicts | |
Ps |
WELL-SEEN PERSPECTIVE. èCapacity to locate oneself in the environment and regarding others | |
Ps |
PERSPECTIVE OF VAGUE FORMS.è Feeling of insufficiency and instability | |
Ps' |
DEPTH OR AMPLITUDE, WITHOUT THE FORMAL ELEMENT. è Feelings of anguish | |
L |
WELL-DELIMITED RESPONSE, DETERMINED BY LUMINOSITY èSensibility to appreciate attitudes or emotional variations in other individuals. Tact and wariness in personal relationships. | |
L |
SENSATION OF TEXTURE OR RELIEF DETERMINED BY LUMINOSITY è Primary emotional reactions based on syncretic notions of reality | |
L' |
CONTRAST BETWEEN LIGHT AND SHADOW, TRANSPARENCY OF TACTILE SENSATIONè Anxiety, insecurity or emotional retraction | |
C' |
ACHROMATIC COLOR RESPONSE.è Emotional experience resulting from cultural adaptation | |
FC |
FORM-COLOR RESPONSEè Capacity to react adequately to affectivity inciters | |
CF |
COLOR-FORM RESPONSE è Weaker affective subordination to the real world. Intense affective reaction. Egocentric affectivity | |
C |
CRUDE-COLOR RESPONSE.è Liberation of affective charge. Short-circuit reactions | |
|
A - Animal |
|
PA- Animal detail |
|
H- Human |
|
PH Human detail |
|
an- Anatomy |
Table 1
Comparisons between Psychopaths and Rapists
Associative Capacity and Intellectual Observation
|
Rapists n=12 Psychopats n=19 t Test Variance Analysis | ||||||||
|
Variables M SD M SD t p F p | ||||||||
|
RT |
19.42 |
4.47 |
24.32 |
14.15 |
1.16 |
>0.05 |
10.2 |
<0.001 |
|
T/RT |
55.58 |
26.45 |
46.86 |
8.92 |
1.33 |
>0.05 |
8.79 |
<0.001 |
|
RM |
9.00 |
2.04 |
11.53 |
7.18 |
1.18 |
>0.05 |
1.8 |
>0.05 |
|
GM |
59.68 |
20.6 |
46.44 |
22.07 |
1.66 |
<0.05 |
1.2 |
>0.05 |
|
PM |
30.86 |
19.93 |
36.37 |
23.4 |
0.67 |
>0.05 |
1.4 |
>0.05 |
|
PM |
2.76 |
5.18 |
6.08 |
12.4 |
0.88 |
>0.05 |
5.7 |
<0.01 |
|
EM |
0.17 |
0.39 |
0.47 |
0.84 |
1,16 |
>0.05 |
4.73 |
<0.05 |
|
GEM |
0.33 |
0.65 |
0.79 |
1.13 |
1.28 |
>0.05 |
3.07 |
<0.05 |
|
PGM |
0.17 |
0.57 |
0.1 |
0.32 |
0.44 |
>0.05 |
3.3 |
<0.05 |
|
GPM |
0 |
0 |
0.05 |
0.23 |
0.75 |
>0.05 |
3.3 |
<0.05 |
|
RC |
10.42 |
3.12 |
12.53 |
6.88 |
0.99 |
>0.05 |
4.9 |
<0.05 |
|
GC |
14.34 |
15.74 |
14.87 |
16.12 |
0.09 |
>0.05 |
1 |
>0.05 |
|
PC |
76.08 |
18.17 |
72.53 |
22.77 |
0.45 |
>0.05 |
1.6 |
>0.05 |
|
PC |
5.32 |
6.51 |
8.19 |
17.86 |
0.53 |
>0.05 |
7.5 |
<0.01 |
|
EC |
0.42 |
0.79 |
0.97 |
1.4 |
1.24 |
>0.05 |
3.11 |
<0.05 |
|
GEC |
0.25 |
0.45 |
0.05 |
0.23 |
1.64 |
>0.05 |
4 |
<0.01 |
|
PGC |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
>0.05 |
0 |
>0.05 |
|
GPC |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
>0.05 |
0 |
>0.05 |
Table 2
Comparisons between Psychopaths and Rapists
Adaptation to an Objective Reality and Capacity for Constructive Action
|
Rapists n=12 Psychopats n=19 t Test Variance Analysis | ||||||||
|
Variable M SD M SD t p F p | ||||||||
|
RMI M |
51.08 |
10.93 |
51.38 |
13.38 |
0.06 |
>0.05 |
1.5 |
>0.05 |
|
F+M |
75.76 |
19.05 |
74.1 |
26.25 |
0.19 |
>0.05 |
1.9 |
>0.05 |
|
AM |
50.51 |
21.24 |
52.04 |
23.71 |
0.18 |
>0.05 |
1.2 |
>0.05 |
|
VM |
26.95 |
16.28 |
30.98 |
24.15 |
0.51 |
>0.05 |
2.2 |
>0.05 |
|
CON M |
43.15 |
15.34 |
54.64 |
29.6 |
1.24 |
>0.05 |
3.7 |
<0.05 |
|
Lamb. M |
1.01 |
0.98 |
0.56 |
1.11 |
1.15 |
>0.05 |
1.3 |
>0.05 |
|
RMI C |
44.29 |
7.58 |
44.56 |
9.7 |
0.08 |
>0.05 |
1.6 |
>0.05 |
|
F+C |
76.38 |
21.86 |
72.42 |
20.37 |
0.51 |
>0.05 |
1.2 |
>0.05 |
|
A C |
38.94 |
20.71 |
43.63 |
23.52 |
0.56 |
>0.05 |
1.3 |
>0.05 |
|
V C |
17.76 |
9.42 |
17.62 |
11.34 |
0.04 |
>0.05 |
1.4 |
>0.05 |
|
CON C |
27.81 |
27.76 |
33.58 |
28.77 |
0.55 |
>0.05 |
1.1 |
>0.05 |
|
Lamb.C |
1.18 |
1.01 |
0.83 |
0.65 |
1.18 |
>0.05 |
2.4 |
<0.05 |
Table 3
Comparison between Psychopaths and Rapists
Personality Profile Scores
|
Rapists n=12 Psychopaths n=19 t Test Variance Analysis | ||||||||
|
Variables M SD M SD t p F p | ||||||||
|
Af |
1.17 |
0.33 |
1.15 |
0.42 |
0.14 |
>0.05 |
1.64 |
>0.05 |
|
Imp |
0.89 |
0.76 |
1 |
0.56 |
0.46 |
>0.05 |
1.8 |
>0.05 |
|
M |
0.5 |
0.67 |
0.68 |
1.2 |
0.47 |
>0.05 |
3.11 |
<0.05 |
|
M |
1.33 |
1.7 |
1.97 |
1.52 |
1.09 |
>0.05 |
1.24 |
>0.05 |
|
M |
0.5 |
0.6 |
1.08 |
1.58 |
1.21 |
>0.05 |
6.97 |
<0.05 |
|
Ps |
1.04 |
1.29 |
0.71 |
1 |
0.8 |
>0.05 |
1.64 |
>0.05 |
|
Ps |
1.08 |
1 |
0.58 |
0.85 |
1.49 |
>0.05 |
1.36 |
>0.05 |
|
Ps |
0.03 |
0.29 |
0.08 |
0.25 |
0.51 |
>0.05 |
1.33 |
>0.05 |
|
L |
0.5 |
0.64 |
0.76 |
1.48 |
0.57 |
>0.05 |
5.37 |
<0.05 |
|
L |
0.62 |
0.82 |
0.35 |
1.19 |
0.69 |
>0.05 |
2.52 |
<0.05 |
|
l |
0.25 |
0.4 |
0.24 |
0.51 |
5.7 |
<0.05 |
1.63 |
>0.05 |
|
FC |
0.54 |
0.99 |
0.68 |
1.01 |
0.38 |
>0.05 |
1.08 |
>0.005 |
|
CF |
1.21 |
1.01 |
0.87 |
0.91 |
0.97 |
>0.05 |
1.23 |
>0.05 |
|
C |
0.83 |
1.45 |
0.39 |
0.57 |
1.19 |
>0.05 |
6.59 |
<0.05 |
|
C |
1.79 |
1.53 |
1.39 |
1.72 |
0.66 |
>0.05 |
1.26 |
>0.05 |
|
NC |
0.08 |
0.29 |
0.26 |
0.93 |
0.65 |
>0.05 |
10.87 |
<0.05 |
|
NC |
0 |
0 |
0.1 |
0 |
- |
>0.05 |
6.59 |
<0.05 |
Table 4
Type of Interest
|
Rapists n=12 Psychopats n=19 t Test Variance Analysis | ||||||||
|
Variables M SD M SD t p F p | ||||||||
|
A |
7.91 |
3.5 |
8.79 |
3.33 |
0.70 |
>0.05 |
1.11 |
>0.05 |
|
Pa |
0.5 |
0.67 |
2.24 |
2.78 |
2.12 |
<0.05 |
17.18 |
<0.001 |
|
H |
1.58 |
1.5 |
1.89 |
2.47 |
0.39 |
>0.05 |
2.7 |
<0.05 |
|
PH |
0.58 |
0.67 |
2.31 |
3.16 |
1.86 |
>0.05 |
22.22 |
<0.001 |
|
An |
1.33 |
1.43 |
0.89 |
1.29 |
0.89 |
>0.05 |
12.73 |
<0.001 |